What is Leading by Contingency and What Approaches Have Been the Most Effective?
It has often been said that leadership effectiveness is dependent on responding flexibly to the demands of the situation. However, it is one thing to make this assertion, but much more difficult to isolate specific situational factors and then determine the best approach to leadership. Leading by contingency means using the right styles and tools based on the circumstances. There is no equation that can automatically yield an answer but there are guidelines that can be of value. There are a number of theories and each gives emphasis to at least one type of factor. However, none of the theories are comprehensive enough to stand alone. Factors like control, cognitive resources, readiness, trust, task structure, goals and resources must be considered.
The Control Factor
One approach, called the Fiedler Model, proposes that group performance success depends on the proper match between a leader’s style and the extent to which a situation gives control to a leader.
It is necessary to match leaders with situations in which their leadership style will work. Fiedler identified several contingency dimensions that describe situational factors which determine leadership effectiveness. These include:
· Position power – the amount of power a leader has over hiring, firing, etc.
· Task structure – how structured job assignments are
Fiedler asserts that task-oriented leaders perform best in situations involving high and low control while relationship-oriented leaders are most effective in moderate control situations.
Reviews of major studies testing the validity of this theory are positive. There is a good deal of support. The most important thing to learn from this theory is the importance of control.
Fiedler’s cognitive resource theory
Recently Fiedler and Joe Garcia reconceptualized the Fiedler theory focusing on the role of stress as a type of situational adversity and how a leader’s experience and intelligence influence their stress reaction. This refinement of the Fiedler theory is called the cognitive resource theory. In this theory stress is the enemy. Stress makes it difficult for anyone to think logically. The theorists conclude that intelligence correlates positively with performance when stress conditions are low but negatively when stress levels are high. The conclusion is that it is the level of stress in a situation that determines the importance of an individual’s intelligence or experience. While the focus on stress is valuable the cognitive resources factor must be viewed in a broader context. Under high stress preplanned and fixed solutions may be better. In lower levels of stress there is time and energy for problem solving. The most important contribution is the importance of cognitive resources.
The Readiness Factor
The Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory (SLT) has been incorporated in training programs for over 400 of Fortune 500 companies. This theory is based on the assumption that the right leadership style is based on the followers’ readiness. Readiness refers to the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task. The amount of control a leader needs to exert depends on the followers’ abilities and motivation. If followers are unwilling and unable to do a specific task a leader needs to give very specific and clear instructions and closely monitor performance. If followers and unable but willing a leader needs to emphasize the task to make up for the followers lack of ability and be highly relationship oriented to get the followers to buy into the leaders desires. If followers are unwilling but able the leader needs to be supportive and have a participative style. If employees are both able and willing then they do not require much from their leader and the leader can delegate more to the follower. The importance of this theory is the emphasis on the readiness of the follower.
The Trust Factor
The leader-member exchange (LME) theory assumes that because of time constraints leaders form a special relationship with a select group of followers. The selected individuals make up the in-group. The in-group is trusted and gets more than its share of attention by the leader and members are more likely to receive special privileges. Followers not in the in-group are considered to be in the out-group. They get fewer special privileges and less of the leader’s time, fewer rewards that the leader controls and have a more formal leader-follower relationship. The leader-member exchange (LMX theory) goes on to propose that the “in” or “out” relationship is relatively stable over time. Members to the in-group tend to have similar attitudes and personality characteristics which are similar to the leader’s or possess a higher level of competence than the “out” group. The approach of the leader is contingent on the level of trust. A leader is more likely to supervise the less trusted group more closely and delegate to the trusted in-group. The most important contribution is the emphasis on trust as a factor.
The Factor of Task Structure
The leader-participation model was developed by Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton. This theory recognizes that task structures have varying demands for routine and non-routine activities and that the leader’s behavior must adjust in response to the task structure. Examples of the type of variables considered important are: the importance of the decision, the time constraints on the leader than may limit follower involvement, how effectively structured a problem is, and the importance of participation by followers as a tool for making a decision. The model is too complex and difficult to teach but it has the value of giving appropriate emphasis to the characteristics of the structure of the task .
The Goal and Resources Factors
The path-goal theory is the current most influential contingency approach to leadership. This theory was developed by Robert House. The fundamental core of the path-goal theory is that the leader’s job is to provide followers with the resources they need to reach the goals assigned to them. These resources include not only materials and supplies but also information and professional support along the way to achieving the goals. It is the leader’s responsibility to make the goal and its path clear not only conceptually but also by reducing the number of roadblocks in the path to the successful achievement of the goals.
The path-goal theory identifies leaders as behaving in four distinct ways. The directive leader keeps followers up to date on what is expected of them, schedules what work should be done when and gives specific guidance on how to accomplish the assigned tasks. The participative leader consults with his followers for suggestions which he uses before making decisions. The achievement leader sets challenging goals which followers are expected to acheive at their highest level of competency. The supportive leader, in comparison, is friendly demonstrates concern for their followers’ needs. Leaders are thought to he capable of being flexible and that the same leader may display any or all of the four leadership behaviors based on the particular situation. The path-goal model assumes two types of situational or contingency variables that moderate the leadership behavior. These are environmental variables beyond the leader’s control and certain personal characteristics of the employees. These include such things as locus of control, experience and perceived ability. Environmental factors determine what type of leader behavior is needed to maximize follower outcomes. On the other hand employee personal characteristics determine how the leader and environmental are interpreted.
What are the Implications of Leading by Contingency for Managers?
Leadership plays a major role in fostering group behavior because the leader usually provides the direction to attain goals. The better the match between the ultimate goals and the particular leadership style of the leader, the more likely a successful outcome. The approach the leader takes depends on these factors:
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- Control- the degree of control that the leader has and the degree of control that the follower may have in the situation must be considered. If the leader has a high degree of control then the next question is whether that control can be transferred to the follower. When the leader has high control and that control cannot be transferred the leader should be very active and delegate very little. It may be more effective to do the job themselves. On the other hand when the follower has a high level of control the leader can simply define the outcome desired and delegate the task.
- Cognitive Resources- while theories have focused on stress, the cognitive resources factor should be applied more broadly. The question is what does the leader know and what does the follower know about the situation. In many cases the follower may have greater knowledge than the leader. In that case the leader is wise to delegate and get out of the way. If the leader has a high level of knowledge the question is one of training. How quickly can the leader transfer knowledge to the subordinate?
- Readiness- two aspects of readiness are ability and willingness. Ability involves not only the knowledge but also the level of experience the follower may have with the task. A follower may have the knowledge in their head but have little experience in the task. Thus the leader must take experience into account. Just as important, however, is willingness or motivation. If a follower has both the ability and the willingness the leader can assign the task and turn to other matters with little need for supervision.
- Trust- when a leader is working with individuals in a group that is highly trusted then they can give greater latitude. The risk is that if the group is trusted for the wrong reasons and they do not have the ability or the motivation, then the result can be failure. One might very well modify the well known Russian proverb so that it says: Trust but verify the skill and motivational level relative to the task at hand.
- Task structure- some tasks are simple and straight forward. The follower need only walk from point A to point F. When tasks are easily defined the leader can delegate and move on. Very complex tasks may be beyond the skills of one person and thus may require appointment of a work group with representatives from different areas.
- Goals and resources- perhaps the most important factor of all in consideration of contingencies is the goal and the resources required to achieve the goal. When the goal is clear and the resources are available the leader can assign the job and move on to other things. However, often the mobilization of needed resources requires continued involvement by the leader.
While early searches for universal leadership traits has not proven to be very valuable, efforts to employ a slightly different framework have been more promising. There is not a fixed set of leadership traits. However, efforts using the Big Five personality framework have identified conscientiousness, extroversion, and openness to experience as relating strongly to leadership. More research on the contribution of the different characteristics could prove valuable/
The importance of relevant situation variables in the understanding of leadership has been well demonstrated and has been a major breakthrough in trying to understand leadership characteristics.
Is Leadership “Training” Worthwhile? The answer seems to be yes but with reservations. It is very common for companies to spend large amounts of money training leaders in workshops and retreats only to find participants drifting back into old patterns. It seems that training without on the job coaching as part of the follow through is of very limited value. Proponents of leadership training suggest that the multibillion dollar industry exists because it works. While agreeing that there are disagreements on an exact definition of leadership, proponents state that a leader exhibits leadership by their influence on ushering a group of people towards achieving specific goals. In reference to the effectiveness of leadership programs, proponents admit that they vary, which is to be expected, given how diverse the programs are. One of the reasons that different approaches may be needed is because people learn in different ways and that leadership programs should be careful in matching leadership-training opportunities to insure that they match the needs and learning style of their managers.
What are the Implications of Leading by Contingency for Subordinates?
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What contingency means to you- if are lucky enough to have a leader that is flexible and changes their approach based on situational contingencies your job is to help them do so. That means an active communication process and dialogue about factors like control, cognitive resources, readiness, trust, task structure and goals and resources. The more you are able to evaluate yourself in reference to these factors and the better you communicate with your supervisor about these the greater the likelihood of success.
Negotiating level of participation- you will be better in negotiating your own level of autonomy is you can couch your position in terms of the key factors. Prepare yourself for any negotiations by doing your own homework about the match between the task and your own characteristics. Do not be defensive. It is in your interest to be given the authority and operational latitude needed to be successful. It would be better if someone else were assigned a job or project than to have lots of room to fall on your face.
Clarification of the task- be absolutely sure you understand the assignment. Do not leave success to guess work. Ask questions. Even better ask good questions. You might try to flow chart your understanding of the features and steps in the assigned task and then sit down with your supervisor and go over it. You might find it useful to ask others how they see the task defined just to check yourself. However, in the end it is the supervisors understanding that matters most.
Obtaining the information you need- information can be the most important resource of all. Ask yourself how you will go about getting the information you need to carry out the task and from whom you can obtain the information. Make a list of the items you need and then check them off as you get them. If possible before you begin sit down one final time with your supervisor and go over the information you obtained. Give your boss the chance to identify points of confusion or error.
Determination of your collaborators- complex tasks often require other people. Your job should include helping to identify who those people may be. Define your understanding of their roles. Be sure their supervisors understand what roles they will play and that they support those roles otherwise when you need them most they may not be available.
· Determining the priority and time frame- be sure you understand the priority your supervisor places on the task or project. Ask about deadlines and dependencies. Deadlines are the due dates. Dependencies are other work activities that are dependent on your work output. Ask yourself who will become upset if you do not keep to the schedules.
· Establishing the goals- never be satisfied with goals in people’s heads and not on paper. If your supervisor sets the goals then be sure to read them and ask questions. If you have been delegated the goal setting process then set the goals and review them with your supervisor.
· Project planning- if your tasks involves leading a project team the most important step is the planning. Ask your supervisor what role he or she may want to play in the project. If they ask you to develop the plan then do so but be sure to go over the plan with your supervisor.
If your supervisor employs leadership by contingency then you must be very active and you must make every effort to communicate. You must help your supervisor evaluate the factors that will determine the approach to leadership.
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